Xù Fà (蓄发）
1. What is Xù Fà (蓄发, Traditional Chinese Long Hair)?
Xù Fà literally means "to grow long hair."
It refers to the practice in ancient China where men did not cut their hair short but instead grew it long.
Typically, the hair was grown from childhood and, after reaching adulthood, was styled into a bun or tied up.
This tradition persisted for thousands of years in Chinese history.
However, this does not mean that the hair was never trimmed throughout life; it was regularly maintained to keep it neat and tidy.
2. Length and Hairstyles
Length:
It was common for adult men to grow their hair long—sometimes shoulder-length or more—and tie it up as a sign of adulthood and cultural identity.
Common Hairstyles:
Shu Fa (束发): Tying the long hair neatly, often secured with a ribbon, jade crown, or hairpin. This style was common among scholars and officials.
Pan Fa (盘发): The hair is coiled into a topknot, such as the Daoist bun (道髻) or the military topknot (武将髻).
zong jiao(总角): Young boys, typically not yet of age, would not tie their hair but let it hang naturally.
3. The Historical Evolution of Xu Fa (蓄发, Growing Long Hair)
① Ancient Times to the Spring and Autumn Period (circa 2000 BCE – 770 BCE)
During the Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasties (夏、商、周), growing long hair was a common practice.
(I am not familiar with the detailed circumstances, so I will not elaborate further, but it is certain that it was a widespread phenomenon.)
② Spring and Autumn Period to the Warring States (770 BCE—221 BCE)
The custom of growing long hair was widespread during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, and it became integrated with social status and ceremonial norms.
Confucius (孔子, 551 BCE–479 BCE), the founder of Confucianism, emphasized the importance of "filial piety" (孝, xiao) and "ritual propriety" (礼, li), but he did not specify the exact requirements for growing long hair.
③ Qin and Han Dynasties (221 BCE—220 BCE)
Qin Dynasty (秦朝, 221 BCE–206 BCE):
After Qin Shi Huang (秦始皇) unified China, the practice of growing long hair was not changed, though the legal punishment system was strengthened.
The "Kūn Xíng" (髡刑) was formally established, where shaving the head was used as a punishment and considered a great humiliation.
※: Excluding those who became monks, although Buddhism had not yet been introduced to China during the Qin Dynasty, it is worth noting.
④ Western Han Dynasty ( 202 BCE–9 CE):
With the rise of Confucianism, growing long hair became an ethical standard.
After the Han Dynasty established its rule, it gradually transitioned from Legalism to Confucianism as the governing philosophy.
During the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (汉武帝, 156 BCE–87 BCE), Confucianism officially became the state ideology.
The Classic of Filial Piety (孝经) became an official text, and the principle of " One’s body, hair, and skin are received from one’s parents and must not be harmed." was established as part of the filial piety code.
Shaving or harming one’s body was viewed as unfilial.
Growing long hair became recognized as a moral guideline, and the idea that "not cutting hair is a form of filial piety" became widely accepted in society.
⑤ From the Western Han to the Ming (202 CE—1644 CE)
From the Western Han (西汉, 202 BCE) to the Ming (明, 1644 CE), the tradition of growing long hair persisted in Chinese society for over 1800 years.
During this long historical period, growing long hair was not only a personal appearance but also became a symbol of social order, status, and cultural beliefs.
It was only when the Qing(清, 1644 CE) enforced the Queue Order (剃发令, Tì fà lìng) that this millennia-old tradition was forcibly ended.
⑥ Qing (1644 CE—1911 CE)
After the Manchus established the Qing Dynasty, they forcibly implemented the 'Queue Order' (剃发令, Ti fa Ling), requiring Han Chinese men to shave the top of their heads while leaving a long braid at the back (Queue Hairstyle).
The slogan was: Either cut your hair or drop dead—your choice!（留头不留发，留发不留头）
⑦ Modern Times (1911 CE—)
After the Xinhai Revolution (辛亥革命, 1911) overthrew the Qing Dynasty, the revolutionary party promoted the cutting of braids, and cutting off the long braid symbolized the rejection of feudal oppression.
During the Republic of China period (民国, 1912–1949), growing long hair gradually gave way to short hair, especially with the influence of Westernization, where short hair for men became the mainstream.
In the Modern Era, growing long hair is no longer a widespread cultural practice, with only a few groups such as Taoist priests and opera performers still maintaining long hair.
4. Reasons Why the Long Hair Tradition Persisted for Thousands of Years
① The Consolidation of Confucian Ideology
Filial Piety:
Confucianism established the principle "One’s body, hair, and skin are received from one’s parents and must not be harmed." This made growing long hair a symbol of filial piety and moral virtue.
State Recognition
Since Emperor Wu of Han (汉武帝, 156 BCE–87 BCE) established Confucianism as the official state ideology, maintaining long hair gradually became part of both law and ceremonial customs.
② Social Order and Identity Symbolism
Coming-of-Age Ceremony:
Adult men were required to tie their hair and wear a crown to signify maturity and the assumption of social responsibilities.
Scholar-Officials:
Government officials and scholars grew long hair and wore crowns.
Hairstyles directly influenced social status and became a clear marker of different social classes.
Shaving as a Punishment:
The Kūn Xíng (髡刑) was used as a criminal penalty, making shaving one’s head an extreme humiliation.
This reinforced the necessity of maintaining long hair in society.
③ Cultural Tradition and Religious Influence
Daoism:
Daoist priests typically grew long hair and styled it into a Daoist bun (道髻, Dàojì), symbolizing harmony with nature.
Buddhism:
Although Buddhist monks shaved their heads, the broader society continued the tradition of growing long hair, and Buddhism’s influence did not change the mainstream practice.
Stable Dynastic Rule:
Throughout the rule of Han (汉), Tang (唐), Song (宋), and Ming (明) dynasties—all Han-led regimes—the long hair tradition was never officially suppressed, allowing it to become a deeply ingrained cultural norm.
5. Xu Fa (蓄发) and Xianxia Novels
① Long Hair as a Symbol of Identity
Xia (侠, The Chivalrous Hero):
In the Wuxia (武侠) world, growing long hair is a defining characteristic of scholars and martial heroes.
The hero’s long hair not only aligns with historical Wuxia customs but also reflects the character's bold and unrestrained personality.
Daoists and Cultivators:
Daoism (道教) emphasizes following the natural way (顺应自然), which is why Daoist priests (道士) traditionally do not cut their hair but instead tie it into a Daoist bun (道髻) or secure it with a hairpin.
This image is inherited in Xianxia novels, where cultivators are typically depicted with long hair flowing over their shoulders or styled in a topknot, signifying their cultivation identity.
Xianren (仙人, The Immortals):
In ancient Chinese mythology and Daoist culture, immortals are often portrayed as ethereal beings transcending the mortal world, with long hair symbolizing their harmony with the laws of nature.
② Long Hair in Xianxia: Aesthetic and Symbolic Significance
A Symbol of Freedom and Unrestrained Spirit
Da xia (大侠, The Great Hero): The image of flowing hair embodies the unrestrained and carefree spirit of the wandering Jianghu hero.
Xian ren (仙人, The Immortal): Windblown long hair enhances the otherworldly aura of an immortal, evoking the sense of being beyond the mortal world.
③ Visual and Aesthetic Impact
In film, comics, games, and other Xianxia adaptations, long hair has become a signature visual feature, making characters instantly recognizable and more visually striking.
The combination of flowing long hair and white robes has practically become the hallmark of "immortal-like elegance" (仙风道骨) in both Xianxia novels and visual media.
④ Deep Connection with Traditional Culture
The 'Xia' (侠) in Xianxia novels originates from Wuxia literature, and the character portrayal in Wuxia is based on the historical image of warriors and chivalrous figures. Therefore, growing long hair became a natural feature.
'Xian' (仙) originates from Daoism and mythology, so the image of cultivators has always been depicted with long hair, and this cultural tradition has been passed down to the present day.
About Confucianism（Ru Jia, 儒家）
About Confucianism
1. Introduction to Confucianism
Confucianism (儒家, Ru jia) originated during the Spring and Autumn Period (circa 6th century BCE), founded by Confucius (孔子, 551 BCE – 479 BCE).
Fun Fact: On the east pediment of the U.S. Supreme Court building stand statues of Confucius, Moses, and Solon.
2. When Did It Become the State Ideology?
Emperor Wu of Han (汉武帝, 141 BCE – 87 BCE) established the policy of "Abandoning Other Schools and Promoting Confucianism Exclusively" (罢黜百家，独尊儒术), making Confucianism the core ideology of state governance.
From then on, Confucianism became the official state ideology of successive dynasties, and its influence was strengthened through the imperial examination system (科举制度), continuing until the end of the Qing Dynasty.
3. Main Teachings
Ren (仁, Benevolence): Focuses on love for others, emphasizing goodwill and moral responsibility in human relationships.
Li (礼, Rites): The foundation of social order, regulating behavior to maintain social stability and harmony.
Xiao (孝, Filial Piety): Stresses respect and obedience to parents, extending to loyalty to the ruler and love for the country.
Junzi (君子, The Ideal Gentleman): Possessing moral integrity, knowledge, and a sense of responsibility, they are the ideal leaders of society.
4. Why Does Confucianism Emphasize "Filial Piety"?
In Confucian thought, "filial piety" (孝, xiao) is the foundation of social order, ethical conduct, and national governance.
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Confucius believed that social harmony arises from familial harmony, and the core of family harmony lies in filial piety.
Confucius said, "Filial piety and brotherly love are the root of benevolence" (《论语·学而》), meaning that respecting parents and loving siblings are fundamental to benevolence (仁, ren).
Only by learning to honor one’s parents can one learn to respect others and form the basic ethics of society.
In Confucian society, the family is the smallest unit of society, and if everyone practices filial piety and the family is harmonious, the society will naturally be stable.
"When the family is in order, the country will be at peace" (《大学》) — family stability is the foundation for national stability.
Additionally, filial piety served as the social welfare system in traditional society. In the absence of modern social security, filial piety ensured that elderly parents would be supported by their children, maintaining the stability of the family structure.
Thus, "filial piety" is not only an ethical requirement but also a social responsibility.
5. How is Filial Piety Connected to Loyalty to the Ruler and Patriotism?
Confucianism established a philosophy that links family ethics to national politics, extending the concept of filial piety into the political sphere, transforming it into "loyalty to the ruler and patriotism."
① Family and State as a Reflection of One Another: The State as an Enlarged Family
"The ruler is like the father, the minister is like the son" (《论语·颜渊》) — rulers are seen as "fathers", while the people are considered their "children".
Just as children must be filial to their parents, subjects must be loyal to their rulers (Loyalty to the Ruler).
Patriarchal View of the State:
The emperor is called the "Son of Heaven" (天子, Tian zi), a title that symbolizes the ruler’s divine right to govern the world, with all people considered his children.
② Filial Piety Evolves into Loyalty
Mencius proposed: "Service (to others) originates in serving one’s parents; loyalty (to a ruler) is the extension of filial piety." (《孟子·离娄上》) — filial piety toward parents is the root of loyalty to the ruler.
Thus, "filial piety" extends from family ethics to national politics, becoming a part of "loyalty" (忠, Zhong).
③ Filial Piety as the Foundation for Official Careers
Filial and Incorrupt Candidates (孝廉制度, Xiao lian zhi du):
Originating in the Han Dynasty, this was one of the key standards for selecting officials, requiring candidates to be both filial to their parents and upright and incorrupt.
Filial piety was not only a family ethic but also seen as a crucial measure of an official's character, becoming the basic prerequisite for entering government service.
Imperial Examination System (科举制度, Ke ju zhi du):
Established during the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the Imperial Examination became the primary method for selecting officials.
Confucian classics, especially the Classic of Filial Piety (孝经, Xiao jing), were often part of the examination content.
Filial piety was emphasized as an essential quality for scholars, and the Imperial Examination System further solidified the connection between filial piety and official careers, making it an important factor in social mobility.
④ Family Ethics and Political Order:
In feudal society, filial piety was not only an internal family ethic but also used to maintain social and political order.
Rulers promoted the idea of "loyalty and filial piety being one" and emphasized that "the father is the guide for the son, the ruler is the guide for the minister", drawing parallels between family relationships and the ruler-subject relationship. Filial piety thus became a tool for consolidating royal power.
⑤ Cultural Reinforcement of Filial Piety through Local Institutions:
At the institutional level, the selection of officials and the education system, influenced by Confucian culture, revolved around filial piety.
For example, during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, local officials often relied on the clan system and methods such as the "Filial Piety Archways" to promote filial conduct, while family ancestral halls and clan moral codes further supported this cultural practice.
⑥ Governing the Country with Filial Piety:
Throughout Chinese history, emperors have proclaimed that they "govern the country with filial piety", using it to strengthen the loyalty of their subjects and to make it an instrument for maintaining state control.
Author's Comment:
They kept preaching about filial piety, yet the royal family was full of fathers and sons killing each other, and mothers turning against their own children—it was never in short supply.
6. Core Missions of Confucianism
① Political Governance
Primary Goal:
To provide a comprehensive system of governance for the state, emphasizing rule by ritual (Li) and benevolent government (Ren Zheng), advocating for moral transformation of the people rather than relying solely on laws and punishments.
Hierarchical Social Order:
Establishing the hierarchical relationships between ruler and subject, father and son, husband and wife, and upholding social order through the Three Fundamental Bonds and Five Constant Virtues (三纲五常, San Gang Wu Chang):
Three Fundamental Bonds:
The ruler guides the subject, the father guides the son, and the husband guides the wife.
Five Constant Virtues:
Benevolence (仁, Ren), Righteousness (义, Yi), Propriety (礼, Li), Wisdom (智, Zhi), and Faithfulness (信, Xin).
Supporting the Monarch:
Cultivating a loyal and virtuous bureaucratic class, emphasizing self-cultivation, family regulation, state governance, and world peace (修身、齐家、治国、平天下) — tightly connecting personal morality with national governance.
② Social Moral Code
Ethical Core: Emphasizing Benevolence (仁, Ren), Righteousness (义, Yi), Propriety (礼, Li), Wisdom (智, Zhi), and Faithfulness (信, Xin) — with Filial Piety (孝, Xiao) regarded as the highest virtue and the foundation of all morality.
Maintaining Order:
Through ethical norms like filial piety, loyalty, integrity, and fraternal love, Confucianism stabilizes family, clan, and societal structures, fostering an orderly society where relationships are clearly defined.
Integration of Family and State:
Extending family ethics into national governance, linking filial piety (孝) and loyalty (忠, Zhong) to form a value system where "loyalty to the ruler equals filial piety to parents", serving as the fundamental behavioral standard for both officials and citizens.
③ Educational System
Foundation of the Imperial Examination:
Since the establishment of the Imperial Examination System (科举制度, Kējǔ Zhìdù) during the Sui and Tang dynasties, Confucian classics — such as the Four Books and Five Classics (四书五经, Si Shu Wu Jing) and the Classic of Filial Piety (孝经, Xiao jing) — became central to the selection of government officials, solidifying Confucianism as the state's official ideology.
Moral and Intellectual Cultivation:
Emphasizing not only knowledge but also virtue, upholding the ideal of "combining morality and talent" (德才兼备, De cai Jian bei), aiming to cultivate individuals with both moral integrity and administrative competence.
Cultural Transmission:
Through private schools (私塾, Sīshú), academies (书院, Shūyuàn), and other educational institutions, Confucian thought was disseminated to the general population, shaping the values and behaviors of ordinary people and becoming a universally accepted social norm.
④ Construction of National Ideology
Legitimacy of Rule:
Providing theoretical support for imperial authority and governance, emphasizing doctrines like the divine right of kings (君权神授, Jun quan Shen shou) and the Mandate of Heaven (天命论, Tian ming Lun), using Confucian thought to morally justify the ruler's power.
Integration with Buddhism and Daoism:
Over time, Confucianism absorbed and coexisted with Buddhism and Daoism, forming a pluralistic cultural system dominated by Confucian principles but enriched by other schools of thought, further reinforcing the foundations of state power.
7. The Ideological Shackles of Confucianism
Confucianism, throughout Chinese history, has undergone multiple profound ideological transformations.
What began as an ethical system evolved into a state ideology, and eventually became a rigid mental shackle that constrained social thought.
① Pre-Qin Confucianism (6th century BCE – 141 BCE): An Era of Openness and Intellectual Diversity
Core Characteristics:
Focused on moral and ethical principles, emphasizing values like benevolence (仁, Ren), righteousness (义, Yi), propriety (礼, Li), wisdom (智, Zhi), and faithfulness (信, Xin).
Valued personal cultivation and social harmony.
Key Figures:
Confucius (孔子, 551–479 BCE):
Advocated Ren, Yi, and Li; promoted "restoring propriety through self-discipline", emphasizing humaneness, compassion, and justice.
He placed moral education at the core of politics and opposed tyranny.
Mencius (孟子, 372–289 BCE):
Asserted "The people are more important than the ruler", insisting rulers should care for their people’s well-being.
Xunzi (荀子, 313–238 BCE):
Argued that human nature is inherently evil, requiring regulation through rites (礼, Li) and law (法, Fa) — laying the groundwork for integrating Confucian and Legalist thought.
General Features:
Open-minded and inclusive, advocating moral governance while acknowledging the importance of law and tolerating rival schools (e.g., Legalism, Daoism).
Not yet a unified state doctrine.
② Western Han to Tang Dynasty (141 BCE – 907 CE): Establishment and Consolidation of State Ideology
Core Characteristics:
Confucianism became the official state ideology, showing increasing signs of political instrumentalization to reinforce imperial power and integrate Legalist elements.
Emperor Wu of Han (汉武帝) enforced the policy of "Abandoning Other Schools and Promoting Confucianism Exclusively", making Confucianism the sole orthodox ideology and silencing dissent.
Dong Zhongshu (董仲舒) developed the theory of "divine right of kings", asserting the emperor ruled by Heaven’s mandate and that the people owed absolute obedience, establishing a system where ruler-subject and father-son relationships were unified.
Additional Note:
Emperor Wu of Han (汉武帝) promoted the doctrine of "divine right of kings"for two major reasons:
First, to consolidate centralized power and reinforce the absolute legitimacy of imperial authority.
In the early Han period, powerful feudal lords, members of the imperial clan, and local aristocrats posed significant threats to imperial control.
By adopting the theory of "divine right", Emperor Wu elevated the emperor’s authority as mandated by Heaven (天命, Tian ming), making any rebellion against the emperor tantamount to defying Heaven itself.
This fundamentally undermined regional powers and firmly established the emperor's supreme and unchallengeable status.
Second, as rulers of humble, commoner origins, the Liu family needed to overcome the political stigma of their non-aristocratic background.
To legitimize the dynasty, Emperor Wu invoked the concept of Heaven's mandate (天命, Tian ming), portraying the Liu family as divinely chosen to rule.
This allowed the Han dynasty to shift its claim to power from "conquest by force" to a righteous, Heaven-ordained rule, making imperial authority seem natural, lawful, and beyond question.
Era Characteristics:
Shift from moral philosophy to political doctrine, becoming a pillar of imperial rule.
People were expected to show dual loyalty to father and emperor, while filial piety and loyalty were politicized.
Suppression of intellectual diversity and shrinking space for critical thought.
③ Neo-Confucianism in the Song and Ming Dynasties (960–1644): From Moral Idealism to Individual Suppression
Core Characteristics:
Neo-Confucianism during the Song and Ming dynasties initially emerged as a response to the challenges posed by Buddhism and Daoism. It aimed to reconstruct a moral philosophical system centered on the concept of “heavenly principle” (tianli), emphasizing moral self-discipline, self-cultivation, and the cultivation of one’s inner nature.
However, as its political status gradually rose—especially when it was established as official state orthodoxy during the Ming and Qing periods—Neo-Confucianism became increasingly institutionalized and instrumentalized, transforming into an ideological tool that served the hierarchical structure of feudal society and absolute imperial authority.
Representative Thinkers and the Evolution of Thought:
A. Zhu Xi and “Upholding Heavenly Principle, Eliminating Human Desire”（存天理，灭人欲）
This well-known doctrine was originally intended as a guideline for the self-discipline of the ruling class, advocating for the restraint of selfish desires and a return to rational moral order.
Its original meaning was not to suppress all personal desires, but to achieve inner harmony through self-cultivation.
However, in political practice, this idea was later simplified and distorted—turned into a tool for suppressing natural human emotions, reinforcing rigid social hierarchies, and safeguarding imperial power.
Even if Zhu Xi’s original intentions were benevolent, his philosophy was ultimately twisted into an ideological resource used to support authoritarian rule and suppress human nature and creativity.
B. Wang Yangming（王阳明） and the Doctrines of “The Mind Is Principle”（心即理） and “Innate Knowledge”（良知）
In contrast to Zhu Xi’s emphasis on tianli, Wang Yangming internalized the concept of principle (理), arguing that a person’s innate moral awareness—liangzhi（良知）—was the true source of ethics.
He advocated the unity of knowledge and action (知行合一), stressing that moral judgment should not rely on external authority, but should arise from genuine inner perception.
Although Wang did not completely reject the Confucian structure of social ethics and ritual, his philosophy marked a significant breakthrough on the theoretical level by emphasizing moral autonomy and individual conscience.
Nonetheless, in practice, Wang Yangming’s teachings failed to replace Zhu Xi’s doctrine as the dominant state ideology, and the latter continued to serve as the orthodox foundation for governance.
Institutional Manifestations:
Reinforcement of the “Three Bonds” (三纲):
Namely, the ruler guides the subject, the father guides the son, and the husband guides the wife.
Confucian ethics were used to establish a rigid hierarchical order, emphasizing the absolute authority of monarchs and patriarchs.
Severe gender inequality:
Women’s status was significantly oppressed.
Centered on ideals like female chastity and the “Three Obediences and Four Virtues” (三从四德), moral codes confined women to the domestic sphere, even producing extreme symbols such as chastity archways.
Ideological control through moral orthodoxy:
Neo-Confucianism was propagated through the imperial examination system, clan rules, and family teachings.
Heterodox thought was suppressed, and a unified ideological identity was promoted to maintain social conformity and autocratic rule.
④ Qing Dynasty (1644–1911): Complete Rigidification and Ideological Imprisonment
Core Characteristics:
Fully rigidified, completely reduced to a tool of autocratic rule — a comprehensive shackle on thought, culture, and institutions.
The Imperial Examination system became a mechanical memorization test of the Four Books and Five Classics, selecting bureaucrats who merely echoed imperial will, devoid of independent thinking.
The principle "Upholding Heavenly Principle, Eliminating Human Desire" was exaggerated to the extreme, suppressing humanity and freedom.
Innovation, dissent, and individuality were crushed, and intellectual creativity was extinguished.
Monarchical absolutism reached its peak.
Frequent literary inquisition (文字狱, Wenzi Yu):
The literary inquisitions during the Qing dynasty were among the most brutal mechanisms of political control in Chinese history.
People were often executed, exiled, or imprisoned for writings that were interpreted as disrespectful to the emperor or threatening to imperial authority — even an accidental phrase could lead to death.
Entire families, relatives, and associates could be implicated and destroyed for a single poem or comment, making literary expression a dangerous endeavor.
One of the earliest and most notorious cases was the Ming History case (1661–1663).
The Qing government took offense at an unofficial history of the Ming dynasty, interpreting its content as a challenge to Qing legitimacy.
As a result, about 70 people — including the writers and those associated with them — were executed.
The government cited multiple "issues" within the text as justification for the mass execution, demonstrating how literary inquisition served as a tool to eliminate both real and imagined political threats.
Interestingly, the famous martial arts novel The Deer and the Cauldron (《鹿鼎记》) by Jin Yong (金庸) opens with a fictionalized account of this very case, using the Ming History case as a backdrop to introduce the political intrigues and dangers of that era.
This connection reflects how deeply such literary persecutions have been embedded in Chinese cultural memory.
⑤ Concluding Reflection
The tragedy of Confucianism lies in its transformation—
From openness to rigidity,
From moral idealism to a tool of political control,
From nurturing the individual to suppressing the self.
What began as a philosophy of self-cultivation and social harmony
Was twisted into an instrument of repression—
Used to silence thought, discipline emotion, and bind human nature in chains of virtue.
That a tradition once so deeply humanistic could become so dehumanizing—
This, undeniably, is its greatest tragedy.
Author's Commentary
Confucianism was once a vital spiritual pillar of Chinese society.
In its early stages, it emphasized benevolence (仁, Ren), righteousness (义, Yi), filial piety (孝, Xiao), and ritual propriety (礼法, Li Fa), providing a solid foundation for maintaining social order and shaping moral values.
Indeed, throughout long stretches of Chinese history, Confucianism played a positive role in stabilizing society and restraining individual desires for the collective good.
However, as history progressed, Confucian thought gradually degenerated from an ethical system into a political tool designed to consolidate autocratic monarchy.
Ultimately, it evolved into an ideological shackle that hindered social progress, becoming a means of enslaving hundreds of millions of people.
Many Chinese scholars argue that the rigidification of Confucianism is one of the key reasons why China failed to develop early capitalism, missed the Enlightenment, and never underwent a Renaissance or Industrial Revolution.
While Western societies advanced toward modernization through individual freedom, innovation, and scientific inquiry, China’s Confucian system reinforced absolute monarchy and rigid social hierarchy, suffocating the space for free thought and creativity.
Especially as the imperial examination system became increasingly ossified, education was strictly confined within the narrow framework of the Four Books and Five Classics.
Innovative thinking and practical spirit were systematically suppressed, and the entire society lost the momentum and capacity to break free from outdated institutions or absorb new ideas.
Personally, I share this perspective.
While Confucianism did provide a framework for social stability in its early stages, under the control of monarchical power, it was reshaped into an instrument for suppressing individual thought and serving imperial authority, severely obstructing China's acceptance of new knowledge and ideas.
For this reason, when the West entered the era of modern industrialization, China remained trapped in feudal structures, inevitably falling into decline and humiliation by the mid-19th century.
As one of the most influential ideological systems in Chinese history, Confucianism's historical significance is undeniable.
However, the negative consequences of its rigidification and exploitation by political power deserve deep reflection.
This is not only a question for history but also a warning for the future.
